The History Of Incidental Advertising Exposure Psychology Essay

The History Of Incidental Advertising Exposure Psychology Essay Following the suggestion, the effects of incidental advertising will be examined in terms of implicit memories (cognitive responses), emotions and attitudes (affective responses) and consideration set (behavioural responses). The endogenous variables consist of factors that, as consumer traits, affect the whole advertising response process. Among various factors, involvement and cognitive style were two principal psychological variables that influence consumers incidental ad processing, while gender was considered an important demographic variable. Comparing to the meta-analytic model, we choose to introduce two new variables that were never been tested in the context of incidental advertising: gender and cognitive style. III.2. Incidental advertising exposure Ferraro, Chartrand and Fitzsimons (2005) define incidental exposure as an automatic processing of visual brand information while conscious attention is directed elsewhere. Vanhuele et al. (2005) talked about focal versus non-focal attention in the case of visual perception. Focal vision is restricted to 1,5 to 5 degrees from the current point of focus. To define it, Shapiro (1999) suggests that while a person spotlights conscious attention on a primary task, other information that is not attended to can be processed. This nonconscious, incidental exposure often occurs without explicit memory for advertisement, product, or marketing stimuli and can affect persuasion. Scholars call incidental advertising by preattentive advertising (Droulers, 2004, Yoo, 2005, Adams, 2007). This preattentive processing can be distinguished from attentive processing in individuals lack of awareness of the stimuli, deficit of a speci ¬Ã‚ c goal for the process, inability to control the process, and att ention resources not required for the process. More speci ¬Ã‚ cally, preattentive processing occurs when an individual is preconscious exposed to stimulus in his peripheral  ¬Ã‚ eld of vision (e.g., banner advertisements) while focusing his attention on a primary task (e.g., reading an article on the web) (Ruy and al, 2006). In the field of advertising Shapiro, McInnis and Heckler (1997) were the first to propose the incidental exposure paradigm where they stipulate that subjects are directed to focus their attention on primary task, thus reducing the resources accessible to process secondary information bordering the primary information. In most cases, the secondary information is located to the left or the right of the primary information and is described by its distance (in degrees) from the primary information (parafoveal is 1.5-5 degrees from the attended information, peripheral is greater than 5 degrees) (Janiszewski, 1988). Attentional resources available for processing the secondary information are limited, so secondary information cannot be explicitly recognised-memory traces for this information are unlikely to be strong enough to be restored during a direct search for memory. When reading a newspaper, subjects are inable to recognise having previously seen the ads, Janiszewski (1988) has shown , however that this exposure can boost a consumers liking for the ads and brands. Some marketing studies have investigated conditions that facilitate processing of secondary information (Janiszewski, 1993), the effect this processing has on the comprehension of focally attended material (Janiszewski, 1990), and why this processing affects ad attitudes (Janiszewski, 1993, Shapiro and McInnis, 1992). Prior research has attributed incidental advertising exposure effects to perceptual fluency arising from a feature analysis that occurs during exposure (Janiszewski, 1993; Shapiro et al., 1997). It is necessary to review the process by which preattentive processing may facilitate individuals responses. Two underlying mechanisms have been suggested: feature and semantic analysis. Both analysis mechanisms during preattentive processing will be briefly discussed: Feature analysis: Perceptual fluency asserts that when exposure leads to a memory trace for the perceptual features of the stimulus (e.g., shape and brightness), the features of the stimulus are more easily processed on a subsequent occasion. Without explicit memory for having just seen the stimulus, this ease in processing is misattributed as an increase in familiarity and/or preference for the stimulus (Bornstein, 1989). Perceptual fluency may be ascertained as the ease of processing the perceptual features of a stimulus (Jacoby and Kelley, 1987). Prior exposure is thought to create a feature based representation of the stimulus in memory, with the result that processing of the stimulus on subsequent encounters is facilitated and experienced as subjective ease. Shapiro, McInnis and Heckler (1997) indicate that the effects of incidental ad exposure on stimulus-based judgements (attitude judgements made in the presence of an ad or brand) are due at feature analysis that occurs during processing (Janiszewski, 1993). This processing allows secondary information to subsequently be perceived more easily and hence thought to be more familiar, evaluated more highly. When a person builds a mental representation of a distinguishing item, any ensuing processing takes place faster and, in many situations, lets the messages give the impression more appealing and accurate than they would be if they were crucial or perturbed to process (Reber and Schwarz, 1999). Furthermore, Bornstein and DAgostino (1994) construed the likeability of more readily accessible information conceding to a cognitive perceptual fluency/misattribution model, whereas Winkielman and Cacioppo (2001) suggest a hedonistic fluency model that ascertains constructing smoothly positive affective responses toward fluently processed stimuli. Referring to hedonistic fluency, gracious and affirmative emotional responses happen in consequence of the fact that accustomed stimuli frequently signify a harmless situation, successful. Recognition generates good feelings and comprehensible interpretation attends to positive mood. Janiszewski (1993) further leads the hemispheric approach to the branch of incidental advertising exposure and discerns that abonded verbal messages are more persuasive when they emerge on the right side of the chief area, but they convince inferior to visual cues if they are located on the left. Rendering to Janiszewski (1993) explanations of secondary messages are actuated chiefly by feature analysis, which contains the recognition and processing of the perceptual features of the stimulus in the subconscious mind (Shapiro, 1999). Therefore, when both test and visual stimuli appears to the left of focal point, viewers brains naturally accredit more capacity to treat the visual cues, which commences in higher acquaintance and likeability for the visual messages during ensuing confrontations. However McQuarrie and Mick (2003) found that incidentally exposed with ads figures produce more favourable attitudes and improved memory, whereas Clark and Brock(1994) declare no significant effects of images in ensuing processed ad warnings, along with greater attitude alterations after the exposure to peripheral verbal warnings (Acar, 2007). Semantic analysis: Although perceptual fluency relies on the encoding of feature information during exposure, an analogous process may occur if incidental ad exposure involves the processing of semantic information (Shapiro, 1997). A study by Whittlesea (1993) shows that fluency effects can instead beyond instances of perceptual processing by demonstrating that semantic processing can lead to feelings of conceptual (vs. perceptual) fluency. Whittlesea (1993) suggests that conceptual fluency will affect any judgement regarding a stimulus that relies on conceptually based processes, such as decisions of semantic relatedness. It was mentioned previously that perceptual enhancement may be used as a criterion for determining inclusion in a consideration set. The predominant theory accounting for this facilitation effect suggests that contextual scene information activates a schema for the theme or gist of a scene prior to object identification. The activated schema in turn creates expectancies about what objects are likely to be present. These expectations facilitate object identification (Shapiro, 1997). Di pace et al. (1991) found incidental semantic priming effects after 200milliseconds but not after 2,000 milliseconds. This supported their notion that automatic, non intentional semantic processing of parafoveal information is very short lived (Shapiro, McInnis, Heckler, 1997). In his research, Shapiro (1999) concludes that ad information can undergo a semantic analysis during incidental exposure. Advertised products can more easily take advantage of this analysis when they are depicted in a consistent scene. When advertised products are depicted in this fashion, incidental ad exposure leads to conceptual fluency effects, exerting unconscious ad influence during consideration set formation. When a product is depicted by itself, unconscious ad influences rely on a feature analysis that occurs during exposure. This analysi s creates perceptual fluency effects. The results of experiments in Shapiros (1999) study showed that subjects in the context condition had greater levels of unconscious ad influence and those in the no context condition. This demonstrated that semantic relatedness between the product and other contextual ad information affects differentially the likelihood that the products name would be activated in memory, and, thus, the likelihood that the advertised product would be included in consideration set. This suggests that semantic processing of contextual ad information is what accounts for the context facilitations effects. In our work, we refer to one of the major theories that explain the effects of incidental advertising which is the theory of Zajonc (1968) called  «mere exposure and subconscious processing ». In fact, Zajonc (1968) defines the mere exposure effect as the observation that « mere repeated exposure of individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the improvement of his attitude toward it ». By mere exposure is meant a condition which just makes the given stimulus attainable to the individuals perception. It arises when repeated or single exposure to a stimulus, even in the absence of acquaintance, results in the formation of a positive affective reaction to the stimulus (Zajonc, 1968). In another side, Janiszewski (1993) defines mere exposure to a brand name or product package as the process that encourages a consumer to have a more favourable attitude toward the brand, even when the consumer cannot recollect the basic exposure. This theory is interesting for our study as Zajonc (1968) found that as number of exposure increased, so too did the favourable evaluations. Bornstein, Leone and Galley (1987) have approved these effects when participants are aware as well as not of the presence of stimuli. Further, Ye and Raaij (1997) suggested another definition of mere exposure as they claim that the mere-exposure effect in the absence of awareness represents implicit memory. Mere exposure is the formation of a positive affective reaction to repeated or single exposure to a stimulus, even in the absence of awareness. Bronstein (1989) reveals that research on the influence of repeated stimulus exposures has demonstrated that preferences can be formed without an accompanying awareness of the preference formation process. Thus, there was a positive affective reaction to the previously presented stimuli (as assessed by their preference judgements) in spite of the fact that these stimuli had not been perceived consciou sly. Another major theory that explains the effects of incidental advertising is the theory of hemispheric processing styles. In reality, many a myth has advanced around the brains asymmetry. The left cerebral hemisphere is supposed to be the calculatedly logical, verbal and governing half of the brain, while the right is the utopian side, emotional, spatially aware but suppressed (McCrone, 2000). Recording to this theory, the human visual system is organized as stimuli located within the individuals field of foveal vision, roughly 1.5 degrees to the left or right of the current field of focus are initially sent to the right hemisphere for processing, and stimuli placed to the right hemisphere for altering, and stimuli placed to the current field of focus are originally sent to the left hemisphere. This theory suggests that summing information to support verbal claims in an advertisement may influence the subconscious processing of the claims. Janiszewski (1990) affirms that processing st yle refers to the procedure or process each hemisphere uses when attacking to achieve a task. Hemispheric resource theory predicts that the availability of resources to form a memory trace of the outputs of a feature analysis may be sensitive to an activation created by the feature analysis its self. To apprehend the effects of incidental exposure to advertising, Janiszewski (1990) recommends the cooperative interaction model which is based on two hypotheses that affect directly to the problems of a dual strategy processing system. The first is that the brain is reciprocal, parallel processor-each hemisphere has its own independent bank of resources and each hemisphere is able of involving concurrently in multiple operations (Janiszewski, 1990).The second assumptions that the hemispheres collaborate cooperatively (Allen, 1983).The assumptions of the cooperative interaction model can be applied to anticipate how nonattended material might intercede with the apprehension of an unattended verbal messages (Janiszewski, 1990).The model is based on capacity theories of attention ( Broadbent 1971; Kahneman, 1973) as well as on general models of information processing, in which motivation, competence and opportunity factors affecting message processing are synthesized (MacInnis and Jawor ski 1990). A key belief underlying these theories and models is that the attentional faculty (or processing capacity) that is accessible to a consumer at a distinct point in time is limited, and that the part that is designated to the stimulus studied is a function of both exogenous (opportunity) and endogenous factors (motivation and ability). The autonomy versus cognition mediation controversy has come to an impasse and has been surpassed by the rise of perceptual fluency as a popular account of the mere exposure effect. Consistently, Wang et al. (2002) found that placing a brand name to the right of attended pictorial information should send it to the less activated left hemisphere, where it will receive a greater degree of subconscious processing than if sent to the right hemisphere. The possibility that placement influences evaluation of a peripherally placed stimulus stems from the hypothesis that the hemispheres have different processing styles. The differential competency of the left and right hemisphere for forming a mental representation of a stimulus during a preattentive processing has a direct implication for our understanding of one potential benefit from manipulating the location of the incidental ads. Thats why we adopt this theory. In fact, referring to the works of Janiszewski (1988, 1993, and 1999) we suppose that ads were more liked when placed in the left, as opposed to the right, visual field because this draft encouraged the viewer to use the holistic processing resources of the right hemisphere to initially. This theory is very ancient, many researchers adopted it and even neuroscientists have supported it. Neuroscientists affirmed, in fact, the distinction between the processing that occurs in the right hemisphere and left hemisphere. In this study we stipulate that incidental ads placed in the left were more liked. III.3. Implicit memory One of the important cognitive responses are memories. A large number of studies have studied memory for advertisement. Yoo (2005) revealed that prior literature in memory research suggests that when consumers are exposed to an advertisement, multiple representations of the advertisement are encoded in memory. In this study, we give a great importance in studying the memory. In fact, to understand how unconscious advertising affects consumer preference, it is first necessary to understand something about how consumers think. But previously marketing studies examining memory for advertisements have relied approximately wholly on examining effects contingent on explicit memory retrieval. In psychology, memory is an organisms ability to store, retain, and recall information. Kronlund, Whittlesea and Yoon (2001) define memory as the commander of all acquired human behaviour, containing speech, conceptual apprehension, skilled activities, social interactions, and consumer preferences. In another side, neuroscientists define memory as the retention of learned information, the acquisition, storage and retrieval of information. To achieve a true understanding of any aspect of human behaviour, it is therefore essential to have an effective theory of memory. In fact, extant literature offers strong evidence that product judgement and brand choice decisions are often influenced by information retrieved from memory (Alba and Hutchinson, and Lynch, 1992). One type of memory that emerges from an exposure event is explicit memory (Yoo, 2005). At the time of exposure, a depiction of the information is encoded in memory and is correlated with a spatio-temporal context that attaches the information to the exposure incident. This memory depiction is attributed to as explicit memory, as known as episodic memory. Explicit memory is characterised by a persons conscious recall of the event and replies what he or she remembers about the event (Lee, 2002). Its also, characterized by a respondents conscious recollection of the preceding exposure. Thus measures of explicit memory make direct reference to the past exposure, and suspects are interrogated to demonstrate what they can remember about the prior event (Yoo, 2007). In fact, Bertrand and Girardi (2007) reveal that explicit memory codifies information on autobiographical events, moreover knowledge of facts. Its creation builds upon cognitive processes of the evaluation, conflicting and assum ing type. Implicit memory has an unintentional and impulsive attribute, and its formation and recall are not entirely dependent on the aptitude of having or attaining knowledge of cognitive processes (Lee, 2002). Cooper and Schacter (1992) defined implicit memory as nonintentional, nonconscious retrieval of previously acquired information and is demonstrated by enhanced performance on tests that do not require conscious recollection of the past. Explicit memory: on the other hand, requires intentional, conscious recollection of the past. The difference between implicit and explicit memory in terms of nonconscious and conscious retrospection is enigmatic because these states of consciousness loss accepted defining criteria. However, the term implicit memory was formulated by Graf and Schacter (1985), with attributing to the phenomenon of remembering without awareness (Lee, 2001). Implicit memory is analyzed to be revealed by relief in tasks that use memory whereas explicit memory is affirmed by straight testing memory (Jacoby, 1991). This memory is unallied of cognitive resource, acts constantly and inevitably whether we are paying a lot or a little attention or even no attention at all, and i s able of attaching emotional meaning to anything that it perceives (Heath, 2007). Our interest to study those memories comes from the fact that Shapiro, McInnis and Heckler (1997) advice that the presence of unconscious processing would be indicated by two measures: (1) implicit memory for the object brand names (2) no manifestation of explicit memory of the target ad (Yoo, 2005). Berry and Dienes (1993) affirm that in the case of incidental advertising, contextual knowledge is acquired through implicit attaining processes which concede complicated information about the stimulus environment to be without intention or awareness. They supplementary propose that incidentally acquired contextual knowledge forms a highly robust, instance based and implicit memory for context. The favour of implicit learning is that permits more information to be acquired than is possible through consciously linked channels. The capital advantage of implicit learning is that it may allow cognitive systems to memorize more information about stimuli than can be processed through consciously controlled channels (Lewicki et al., 1988). Jacoby and Dallas (1981) define the facility with which a person recognise the physical characteristics of a stimulus as perceptual fluency and is identified to be enhanced through preceding exposures. Especially, empirical proof from implicit memory research arrays that prior exposure to a target of ten benefits task performances such as lexical decision, word completion and anagram solving that involves the identification of the perceptual features of the target (Lee and Labroo, 2002). They reported that conceptual fluency eases consideration-set membership and memory based-choice as the result of extended accessibility of the brand in memory (Lee, 2002, Nedungadi, 1990, Shapiro, McInnis and Heckler, 1997) and they lead to the apprehending of the processing fluency model by showing that conceptual fluency influence judgements, too. Enhanced performance has been examined even when respondents are not aware of their having been exposed to the information earlier. Enhanced performance as the termination of preceding exposure recommends that people have memory of the exposure event, even though they may not consciously remember it. This enhancement reflects implicit memory of the event and is often mentioned to as priming. According to the cue accessibility hypothesis, an emotion may effect ones evaluations of ad stimuli because materials stored in memory that are conforming that emotion state will be more available, and consequently more likely to come to mind then they would at another time. Current findings in the mere exposure literature show that perceptual fluency is positively valenced, thus peoples assessment of an object grows as it becomes perceptually more fluent. Extended literature has displayed that the level of attention in encoding does not affect implicit memory but actively influences explicit memory. Schacter (1987) check out numerous alternative theoretical clarifications of such dissociations. One explanation, the activation view, holds that implicit memory performance rests on concepts that are briefly activated in memory due to the antecedent exposure (Yoo, 2007). One of the theories conducted in the field of neuroscience is the competence hemispheric theory. This theory recommends that memory traces are essential to bring the order in which material is presented. The right hemisphere has a more accurate performance of sequentially presented events because it does not commonly essay to reconfigure information as does the left hemisphere (Janiszewski, 1990). The left hemisphere sounds more able to process written or verbal ads, where as the right part of the brain triumph at visual ads. Janiszewski (1990) support Friedman and Polsons matching activation hypothesis and suggests that the greater activation of the right (left) hemisphere during the processing of attended pictorial(verbal) information should improve processing of supplementary material represented within the left(right) hemisphere provided that the material in opposing hemisphere can be treated by that hemisphere. During preattentive processing, if individuals bank only on perceptual fluency (feature analysis), their responses should be independant to the advertisement message, if indeed the individuals are knowledgeable only of features (e.g. size, color) in print advertising. However, if semantic analysis is possible, cognitive responses may implicitly embody the advertisement message, such as a brand name or impressive message cues, even though individuals do not explicitly remember them. Sine this research predicted that semantic analysis is also struggled during preattentive processing, it is anticipated that individuals have implicit memories of print advertisement message as a result of preattentive processing. Processing a print advertisement in a preattentive way will notify the brand delineated within the advertisement and thus construct an implicit memory trace for the brand, even though an individuals explicit memories for of the advertisement will be at levels no greater than thos e awaited by chance (Raman and Leckenby, 1998). Based on the above discussion and the results of anterior studies, the first hypothesis is suggested: Hypothesis 1. Incidental processed advertising is more likely to generate implicit memory than that expected by chance. III.4. Emotional responses Until now, there is no scientific and precise definition of the term emotion. In colloquial language, the term is used to refer to feelings and moods and also refers to the way these are expressed both in behaviour and bodily answers (Kandel; Schwartz and Jess ell, 2000). The Longman Dictionary definition of emotion is strong feeling (e.g. anger, fear, joy) usually incorporating physiological change (1984). Further, according to the complete Oxford English Dictionary, in a psychological classification the term emotion refers to a mental feeling or affection (e.g.: of pleasure or pain, desire or aversion, surprise, hope or fear, etc.) as distinguished from cognitive or volitional states or consciousness also abstr feeling as distinguished from the other classes of mental phenomena (OED, 1994 version). Far from the traditional approach to the study, the cognition accentuates information processing of view that has generally excluded emotion. In contrast, the recent emergence of cogniti ve neuroscience as an inspiration for understanding human cognition has stressed its interaction with emotion. An understanding of human cognition requires the consideration of emotion. Research in neuroscience has resulted in a definition that is distinct from feeling. In contemporary neurological research, emotions are unconscious processes, occurring in the inner and most primitive parts of the brain. Damasio (2003) have written that emotions play out in the theatre of the body so by contrast feelings play out in the theatre of the body. To understand the effects of incidental advertising on emotion we refer to the works of neuroscientists. In fact, decision neuroscience offers the commitment of deepening our understanding of emotion and decision making in a number of ways. Neuroscientists like Damasio and Le Doux have shed a great deal of light on the critical roles that emotion plays in the brain (Damasio, 1994; Le Doux, 1996). Le Doux (2002) claims that emotion can be defined as the process by which the brain determines or computes the value of stimulus. Other aspects of emotion than duplicate from this computation (Meyer-Dinkgrà ¤fe, 2007). In his book, Descartes Error, Damasio declares that the French philosopher may have blow when he came up with his famous dictum, I think, therefore I am. Had Descartes understood the central role that emotions play in the workings of the m ind, he may well have written, I feel, therefore I am (Plessis, 2005). Damasio (1994) can be trusted with initiating modern thinking about how emotions are processed. He uses the concept of a limbic system in the mammalian brain, a construct developed by MacLean (1952) to represent the original mammalian brain, which lies beneath the more recently developed neo-cortex. He shows that activity in the proto-self always anticipated activity in core consciousness. This therefore means that emotions and feelings are always formed pre-cognitively (Heath, 2007). The role of emotion in mental processes is a matter of fervent reflection, where Damasio (1994) argues for strong, but not unique, role for emotion within an exhibited nervous system in general. In particular, the research reviewed above confirms that ads victoriously appealing to the emotions are better remember than their cognitive cousins, although very little is known about the mechanisms supporting the formation of the emotional memories and their effects on consumer choices (Palessman, 2005). It is so important to differentiate between the affective responses toward the stimulus and the global feelings. In this context, emotion represents specific feeling states at the time of incidental exposure. This goes with the definition of Batra and Holbrook (1987) who have distinguished emotional reactions from subcategories of affective responses toward the advertisement. We have also to distinguish emotion from moods. Different to moods, emotions are more stimulus particular (Cohen and Areni, 1991) and emotions may fluctuate highly in their intensity level. Thus, emotions may impact the effectiveness of print ads differently than do moods (Mherabian and Russell, 1974). As there is a delay between the incidental advertising exposure and subsequent brand choice, memory processes ought to be important in determining the effectiveness of particular kinds of advertising. We will examine in the experimental part the critical link between emotion and memory and look how this argues strongly for a dynamic understanding of the way emotion works as we process advertising. The findings of Percy (2003) suggest that in addition to the words and visual images, we also store the emotions that are present at the time so when we recall that event, the emotions associated with it are also recalled whether we are conscious or unconscious of those feelings. Memory in particular, has been studied in terms of its relationship to affect by a number of researchers (Batra and Holbrook, 1987). Hall et al. (2006) stipulate that emotionally arousing the scenes are better remembered than neutral one so emotion has an impact of the memory formation. Events associated with emotions were found to be more memorable. Canli et al. (2000) have found that amygdala activation reflects moment-to-moment subjective emotional experience that this activation enhances memory in relation to the emotional experience and that this activation enhances memory in relation to emotional intensity of experience. They discover also that memory for emotional stimuli and experiences varied the sexes; women seem recalling emotional autobiographical events than men, produce memory with greater emotional intensity in response to cues. Always referring to neuroscience, it has been known for some time that the amygdala is a key brain region for the formation of emotional memories. Cognitive neuroscientists have begun recently to illuminate the psychological and neural mechanisms underlying emotional holding of past events (Percy, 2003; Plessis, 2005). Emotion-memory interactions occur at several stages of information processing. By adopting the perspective of neuroscientists, we struggle to forward our understanding of the link emotion and memory. LaBar and Cabeza (2006) reported that emotion has authoritative influences on learning and memory that comprise multiple brain systems engaged in at different stages of information processing. Further witness of the link between emotion and memory was provided by Ashby et al. (1999). They found that positive affect of individuals facilitates the reinforcement of long term memory as it systematically influences performance on many tasks; their new neuropsychological theory postulate that accounts for many of these effects by assuming that positive affect is associated with increased brain dopamine levels. For Jacoby (1991), recognition memory is treated as dual process that includes recollection (a conscious, controlled process) and familiarity (an unconscious, automatic process). The dual process model stipulates that, for recognition, recollection acts as a discrete state and familiarity can be vi

Early Humans and their Environment Essay -- Environment Environmental

Early Humans and their Environment Humans have been present on this Earth for nearly 3.5 million years when â€Å"Homo erectus† first evolved with an upright posture enabling the use of hands (Ponting). â€Å"Homo erectus† evolved into â€Å"Homo sapiens† one hundred thousand years ago and both lineages lived in small, mobile groups. For nearly two million years, their way of life was based around hunting and gathering food until ten to twelve thousand years ago when agriculture evolved. Early humans depended upon their knowledge of crops and seasons in order for survival. Eventually, as brain size increased and more humans adapted to different environments, advances were made in human technology. Humans began to work with and occasionally against their environment to create a stable way to acquire food as well as a more stable lifestyle. On the other hand, the environment, the climate in particular, definitely dictated the movement and survival methods of early humans. The seasonal changes, climate, and other atmospheric conditions created many challenges for early humans. Modern examples that demonstrate what life might have been like thousands of years ago show that seasons determine where humans can survive. For example, the Bushmen of Southwest Africa live in a consistent climate. They move five or six times a year, but never travel more then ten to twelve miles. On the other hand, the Gidjingali Aborigines in northern Australia eat water lilies from full swamps during the wet season, but move to another area during dry season to hunt yam and geese. The Netsilik Inuit living in Canada use their environmental surroundings for all the necessities of life. Their houses are made from snow and ice while their clothing, kayaks, sledges, a... ...the small mobile groups could begin to reside in one area. Agriculture was a turning point in early human life because humans began to alter their surroundings for survival (Ponting). The relationship between early humans and their environment is extremely complex. On one hand, the human race survived and prospered despite the climatic difficulties. On the other hand, the blossoming of early humans directly caused the extinction or near-extinction of many species as well as possibly affecting the atmosphere and climate. Sources Cited Grossman, Daniel. â€Å"Extinction of Large Animals in Australia† News Report. NPR News. Joyce, Christopher. â€Å"Australian Anthropogenic Climate Change† News Report. NPR News. Ponting, Clive. A Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great Civilizations. St. Martin's Press, New York, 1991. (pp 18-65).

Macbeth :: essays research papers

In the first act of the play, Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, the reader is introduced to the two characters that will play the most significant part in the play's storyline. Even though they are man and wife, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth have much dissimilarity. One can tell how their personalities differ as the plot moves forward. Though they are married and undying in their love, it can be plainly seen that they have many differences.In the opening scene of the play, Macbeth and friends, on one of their travels, encounter a trio of witches who chant prophecies. To sum up their decree to Macbeth, the witches inform Macbeth that it is his fate to be king. This promise of fate worries Macbeth because he thinks that the present king and his friend, Duncan, is a very good ruler. Macbeth's opinion of King Duncan supercedes his desire to rule the kingdom. Therefore, Macbeth is somewhat hesitant to accept his fate.As Macbeth arrives at his manor after the encounter with the witches, he tell s Lady Macbeth of prophecy. Though she meets the news with the same startling surprise as her husband did, Lady Macbeth is much more positive of the impending fate. She thinks that the impending fate of her husband is a very positive thing and she will do everything in her power to help the prophecy come to pass.The night of Macbeth's return to his home, King Duncan is scheduled to have dinner at Macbeth's manor. This event starts off the chain of events that fuel the entire play. While Macbeth downplays the prophecy and is worried of what will happen, as well as the fate of King Duncan, his wife Lady Macbeth acts very proactive. Her thought processes are sinister and devious, as she conjures up a plan to eliminate Duncan as king and put her husband into power.In the first act of Macbeth, one can see the huge gap between the personalities of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth.

Immanent and Economic Trinity

Immanent and Economic Trinity When you think of God do you think of one divine entity or do you take into account the age old idea of the trinity? For all of time we have understood the three individual person’s in God, the Trinity, to be one in the same. The teaching of the Christian church tells us that God is three unique and separate people’s, but they are at the same time all one person in God. Now people have many different ways to picture or represent the idea of three people as one. The trial of history has come up with many different ideas and images to try and represent the trinity.Like many things that have to do with the unknown nature of religion we put our mental limitations on our ideas. This is only natural because it is the only way we can comprehend things, and we only have earthly definitions and limits for things in the realm of this existence. The Economic  Trinity is the doctrine concerning how the  Father, son, and Holy Spirit relate to each o ther and the world. The word economic is used from the Greek  oikonomikos,  which means relating to arrangement of activities.Each person has different roles within the  Godhead  and each has different roles in relationship to the world. One way of thinking about the economic Trinity is to think of the Father as creator, Son as redeemer, and Holy Spirit as sustainer. Subordinationism is the position consistently rejected by the ancient church that the Son and/or Spirit are  ontologically  subordinate to the Father. The Council of Nicaea rejected this position with respect to the Son by employing terms like homoousias of one being and begotten not made.The former refers to the shared substance of divinity between Father and Son, the fact that both are equally eternal and thus equal in glory and power. The latter refers to the fact that, while the Father is indeed the source of the Son’s generation, the Father does  not create the Son. Only finite beings are creat ed; the Son is generated, and the Spirit proceeds or is spirated. These terms are utterly unique with respect to the being of God If we only articulate the appropriations or functions within the trinitarian life of God, we can quickly land ourselves in heretical hot water, so to speak.A doctrine of appropriations on its own quite easily leads to tritheism, in which there are three gods at work rather than one. Against this, we must take heed of the Augustinian axiom against tritheism:  opera trinitatis ad extra sunt indivisa, the external acts of the trinity are indivisible. This rule of trinitarian theology means that what each trinitarian person or mode of being does is inseparable from the other two persons. In other words, the actions of the Son in the world are also the actions of the Father and the Spirit; the same applies to the other trinitarian persons.This Augustinian rule is related to the ancient doctrine of divine  perichoresis  or inter-penetration within Godâ₠¬â„¢s being. According to this doctrine, each person or mode of being participates in the other two persons or modes. The axiom of Augustine derives from this ontological point the functional or economic claim that every action of God is an act of all three together. To appropriate one action to one person never means that the other two are not equally involved in its execution.If there were indeed an act belonging to  only  one person, the result would be tritheism, or at least ditheism. The Trinity is something that explains to us God and Strengthens our religious beliefs as well as our minds. It makes us think and can lead to many different ideas. We have to understand that the ideas we have are all explanations of unknown things. We have to use the knowledge we have and push onward and honor god with thought of Him. One day we will understand things in a way that is more clear to us, but until then we must keep trying to understand these things the best we can.

Personality Psychology and Introverts Essay

Our lives are shaped as profoundly by personality as by gender or race. And the single most important aspect of personality – the â€Å"north and south of temperament†, as the scientist JD Higley puts it – is where we fall on the introvert-extrovert spectrum. Our place on this continuum influences our choice of friends and mates, and how we make conversation, resolve differences, and show love. It affects the careers we choose and whether or not we succeed at them. It governs how likely we are to exercise (a habit found in extroverts), commit adultery (extroverts), function well without sleep (introverts), learn from our mistakes (introverts), place big bets in the stock market (extroverts), delay gratification (introverts), be a good leader (depends on the type of leadership called for), and ask â€Å"what if† (introverts). It’s reflected in our brain pathways, neurotransmitters, and remote corners of our nervous systems. Today introversion and extroversion are two of the most exhaustively researched subjects in personality psychology, arousing the curiosity of hundreds of scientists. These researchers have made exciting discoveries aided by the latest technology, but they’re part of a long and storied tradition. Poets and philosophers have been thinking about introverts and extroverts since the dawn of recorded time. Both personality types appear in the Bible and in the writings of Greek and Roman physicians, and some evolutionary psychologists say that the history of these types reaches back even farther than that: the animal kingdom also boasts â€Å"introverts† and â€Å"extroverts†, from fruit flies to pumpkinseed fish to rhesus monkeys. As with other complementary pairings – masculinity and femininity, East and West, liberal and conservative – humanity would be unrecognizable, and vastly diminished, without both personality styles. Take the partnership of Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr: a formidable orator refusing to give up his seat on a segregated bus wouldn’t have had the same effect as a modest woman who would clearly prefer to keep silent but for the exigencies of the situation. And Parks didn’t have the stuff to thrill a crowd if she had tried to stand up and announce that she had a dream. But with King’s help, she didn’t have to. Yet today we make room for a remarkably narrow range of personality styles. We’re told that to be great is to be bold, to be happy is to be sociable. Closet introverts pass undetected on playgrounds and in corporate corridors. Some fool even themselves, until some life event – redundancy, an empty nest, an inheritance that frees them to spend time as they like – jolts them into taking stock of their true natures. We live with a value system that I call the Extrovert Ideal – the omnipresent belief that the ideal self is gregarious, alpha and comfortable in the spotlight. The archetypal extrovert prefers action to contemplation, risk-taking to heed-taking, certainty to doubt. He or she favours quick decisions, even at the risk of being wrong; works well in teams and socialises in groups. We like to think that we value individuality, but all too often we admire one type of individual – the kind who is comfortable â€Å"putting himself out there†. Sure, we allow technologically gifted loners who launch companies in garages to have any personality they please, but they are the exceptions, not the rule, and our tolerance extends mainly to those who get fabulously wealthy or hold the promise of doing so. Introversion – along with its cousins sensitivity, seriousness, and shyness – is now a second-class personality trait, somewhere between a disappointment and a pathology. Introverts living under the Extrovert Ideal are like women in a man’s world, discounted because of a trait that goes to the core of who they are. Extroversion is an enormously appealing personality style, but we’ve turned it into an oppressive standard to which most of us feel we must conform. The Extrovert Ideal has been documented in many studies. Talkative people, for example, are rated as smarter, better-looking, more interesting and more desirable as friends. Velocity of speech counts as well as volume: we rank fast talkers as more competent and likable than slow ones. The same dynamics apply in groups, where research shows that the voluble are considered smarter than the reticent – even though there’s zero correlation between the gift of the gab and good ideas. Even the word introvert is stigmatised – one informal study, by psychologist Laurie Helgoe, found that introverts described their own physical appearance in vivid language (â€Å"green-blue eyes†, â€Å"exotic†, â€Å"high cheekbones†), but when asked to describe generic introverts they drew a bland and distasteful picture (â€Å"ungainly†, â€Å"neutral colours†, â€Å"skin problems†). But we make a grave mistake to embrace the Extrovert Ideal so unthinkingly. Some of our greatest ideas, art, and inventions – from the theory of evolution to Van Gogh’s sunflowers to the personal computer – came from quiet and cerebral people who knew how to tune in to their inner worlds and the treasures to be found there. Without introverts, the world would be devoid of Newton’s theory of gravity, Einstein’s theory of relativity, WB Yeats’s The Second Coming, Chopin’s nocturnes, Proust’s In Search of Lost Time, Peter Pan, Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four, The Cat in the Hat, Charlie Brown, the films of Steven Spielberg, Google (co-founded by introvert Larry Page) and Harry Potter. As the science journalist Winifred Gallagher writes: â€Å"The glory of the disposition that stops to consider stimuli rather than rushing to engage with them is its long association with intellectual and artistic achievement. Neither E=mc2 nor Paradise Lost was dashed off by a party animal.† Even in less obviously introverted occupations, like finance, politics and activism, some of the greatest leaps forward were made by introverts. Al Gore, Warren Buffett, Eleanor Roosevelt and Gandhi achieved what they did not in spite of but because of their introversion. Yet many of the most important institutions of contemporary life are designed for those who enjoy group projects and high levels of stimulation. As children, our classroom desks are increasingly arranged in pods, the better to foster group learning, and research suggests that the vast majority of teachers believe that the ideal student is an extrovert. As adults, many of us work for organisations that insist we work in teams, in offices without walls, for supervisors who value â€Å"people skills† above all. To advance our careers, we’re expected to promote ourselves unabashedly. The scientists whose research gets funded often have confident, perhaps overconfident, personalities. The artists whose work adorns the walls of contemporary museums strike impressive poses at gallery openings. The authors whose books get published – once a reclusive breed – are now vetted by publicists to make sure they’re talk-show ready. If you’re an introvert, you also know that the bias against quiet can cause deep psychic pain. As a child you might have overheard your parents apologise for your shyness. Or at school you might have been prodded to come â€Å"out of your shell† – that noxious expression that fails to appreciate that some animals naturally carry shelter everywhere they go, and that some humans are just the same. â€Å"All the comments from childhood still ring in my ears, that I was lazy, stupid, slow, boring,† writes a member of an email list called Introvert Retreat. â€Å"By the time I was old enough to figure out that I was simply introverted, it was a part of my being, the assumption that there is something inherently wrong with me. I wish I could find that little vestige of doubt and remove it.† Now that you’re an adult, you might still feel a pang of guilt when you decline a dinner invitation in favour of a good book. Or maybe you like to eat alone in restaurants and could do without the pitying looks from fellow diners. Or you’re told that you’re â€Å"in your head too much,† a phrase that’s often deployed against the quiet and cerebral. Of course, there’s another word for such people: thinkers. You can be a shy extrovert too There are now almost as many definitions of introvert and extrovert as there are personality psychologists. Still, they tend to agree on several important points: for example, that introverts and extroverts differ in the level of outside stimulation that they need to function well. Introverts feel â€Å"just right† with less stimulation, as when they sip wine with a close friend, solve a crossword puzzle, or read a book. Extroverts enjoy the extra bang that comes from activities like meeting new people, skiing slippery slopes, and cranking up the stereo. Many psychologists would also agree that introverts and extroverts work differently. Extroverts tend to tackle assignments quickly. They make fast (sometimes rash) decisions, and are comfortable multitasking and risk- taking. They enjoy â€Å"the thrill of the chase† for rewards like money and status. Introverts often work more slowly and deliberately. They like to focus on one task at a time and can have mighty powers of concentration. They’re relatively immune to the lures of wealth and fame. A few things introverts are not: the word introvert is not a synonym for hermit or misanthrope. Introverts can be these things, but most are perfectly friendly. One of the most humane phrases in the English language – â€Å"Only connect!† – was written by the distinctly introverted EM Forster in Howards End, a novel exploring the question of how to achieve â€Å"human love at its height†. Nor are introverts necessarily shy. Shyness is the fear of social disapproval or humiliation, while introversion is a preference for environments that are not overstimulating. Shyness is inherently painful; introversion is not. One reason that people confuse the two concepts is that they sometimes overlap (though psychologists debate to what degree). You can be a shy extrovert, like Barbra Streisand, who has a larger-than-life personality and paralysing stage fright; or a non-shy introvert, like Bill Gates, who by all accounts keeps to himself but is unfazed by the opinions of others. You can also, of course, be both shy and an introvert: TS Eliot was a famously private soul who wrote in The Waste Land that he could â€Å"show you fear in a handful of dust†. Many shy people turn inward, partly as a refuge from the socialising that causes them such anxiety. And many introverts are shy, partly as a result of receiving the message that there’s something wrong with their preference for reflection, and partly because their physiologies compel them to withdraw from high-stimulation environments. But for all their differences, shyness and introversion have in common something profound. The mental state of a shy extrovert sitting quietly in a business meeting may be very different from that of a calm introvert – the shy person is afraid to speak up, while the introvert is simply overstimulated – but to the outside world, the two appear to be the same. This can give both types insight into how our reverence for alpha status blinds us to things that are good and smart and wise. For very different reasons, shy and introverted people might choose to spend their days in behind-the-scenes pursuits like inventing, or researching, or holding the hands of the gravely ill – or in leadership positions they execute with quiet competence. These are not alpha roles, but the people who play them are role models all the same.

History of Management Theory

Running Head: HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT THEORY History of Management Theory Troy Thompson 5409 Foxglove Drive, Bossier City, LA 71112 318-918-7413 [email  protected] com MSM 500 May 21, 2010 Class Instructor: Dr. David Bouvin Ellis University Introduction People and processes are the main elements under management purview, and it is interesting to learn how managerial philosophy pertaining to these two elements has evolved from the Industrial Revolution throughout the Progression Era and into the modern workplace. The purpose of this paper will focus on Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management, also known as the Taylor System, and Elton Mayo’s Human Relations business models and how they relate to this managerial evolution. Both Taylor and Mayo were iconic masterminds who lit the torch of innovative management for America to progress out from days of uncontrolled process variation and unethical human treatment towards a new beginning of quality management and human respect in the workplace. The primary sources examined are Chapter 1 of Frederick Taylor’s The Principles of Scientific Management, and The Encylopedia of the History of American Management, Elton Mayo. Both sources will guide this paper in the direction of modern day relevancy. The Taylor System Before the Taylor System, factories during the Industrial Revolution concentrated on meeting the demand agriculture commerce from both home and abroad (Montagna, 1981). The focus was not necessarily on quality or the treatment of human labor (Montagna, 1981). Instead, the environment reflected heavy-and-go forms of process flow combined with poorly supervised labor. With his engineering mind and passion for efficiency, Taylor responded to these inadequacies and began his efforts of applying mathematics and engineering principles to eliminate unnecessary effort in operations. The Taylor System gave birth to the following management practices: Incentive-Driven work performances, Time-Motion Studies, Centralized Management, Task Specialization, and Quality Control (Taylor, 1911). All these adoptions gave rise to a new management school of thought centered around a more productive work place, which Taylor considered to be â€Å"maximum prosperity† (Taylor, 1911). Taylor firmly believed in developing â€Å"captains of industry† rather than waiting on natural-born leaders to come along (Taylor, 1911). He also recognized a need for more involvement from the supervisors in the workplace to help eliminate what he referred to as soldiering, or, laxed employee output. He said, â€Å"The 30 percent to 100 percent increase in wages which the workmen are able to earn beyond what they receive under the old type of management, coupled with the daily intimate shoulder to shoulder contact with the management, entirely removes all cause for soldiering† (Taylor, 1911). As the turn of the twentieth century neared, the progressive landscape begged for more efficient business practices (The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, line 16). This was the optimal time for the principles by which operational capacity could be measured, analyzed, streamlined, and controlled to take hold. This system then became a cornerstone on beset of the Great Depression and followed by future management theorists from then on after. One criticism of Scientific Management is that it demanded top-performance in every worker and near perfect throughput on the production line, developing into a quasi authoritarian-style form of bureaucracy. Workers were afraid to out-produce one another on the basis of peer pressure (Taylor, 1911). Taylor’s system was based on good intention, but just lacked understanding of the human side to the workplace. This left room for the work of Elton Mayo to yield fruition. Elton Mayo (Human Relations) Elton Mayo became famous through the Western Electric Company research project. The initial purpose of the project was to find ways to improve worker productivity. He and his team looked at how lighting, rest breaks, room temperature, etc. ffected worker productivity (Mayo, 2006). Through his research, he found a distinct discovery knows as the â€Å"Hawthorne Effect†, which described an increase in output by workers who perceived that they are being watched and studied somehow (Mayo, 2006). Mayo viewed the Hawthorne Effect as a symptom of a bigger issue. He then diverted from his original hypothesis of physical factors to the examination the socio-political factors. What he found was that employees valued acceptance by their peers more than anything else (Mayo, 2006). Also unique about Mayo’s observations was the paradigm-burst that employees were not motivated primarily due to compensation, but were motivated primarily due to job satisfaction; this, of course, was a stark difference in Taylor’s theory that men were motivated best when they were given wages that were commensurate with their skill level. In support of Mayoism, as his principles later became known for, I applaud his principles of human relations that captured the essence of the Progressive Era in that they advanced employee respect in the workplace. Due to his influence, business leaders began to ask the question, what can be done to make our employees happier? New policies were adopted such as exit interviews, participative problem solving, and most novel of all – human relations (Mayo, 2006). Conclusion The essence of Taylor and Mayo’s legacies are of human ingenuity applied to enhance work settings, in terms of both people and processes. The best form of both elements can be seen in today’s business strategy of continuous process improvement, which is a group effort to optimize key processes in an organization. From Six Sigma, to Gantt Charts, to Brainstorming, to Exit Interviews, it is hard to imagine a work setting without the production techniques these two management gurus inspired. For example, the Air Force has embraced a culture of innovation called Air Force Smart Operations for the 21st Century (AFSO21). Through AFSO21, Airmen are encouraged to look at the way they do business and think of ways to make their areas more efficient, more safe, energy-saving, and effective. Many Fortune 500 companies have also incorporated continuous process improvement into their business mantra as a result of business management education guided by the wisdom of Taylor and Mayo. References American Society of Quality. < http://www. asq. org/learn-about-quality/history-of-quality/overview/industrial-revolution. html> Mayo, G. (2006). In Encyclopedia of the History of American Management. Montagna, J. (1981). The Industrial Revolution. Taylor, F. (1911). The Principles of Scientific Management. New York: Harper Bros. , 1911: 5- 29. The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers. â€Å"The Progressive Era. † Teaching Eleanor Roosevelt, ed. by Allida Black, June Hopkins, et. al. (Hyde Park, New York: Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site, 2003).

Marketing Strategies Of Greenwich Pizza Essay

Greenwich re-invents itself more with a more dynamic â€Å"G† logo to attract more customers. This brand look is also an indication of how attuned the company is with the ever-changing times and evolving customer lifestyles. From its previous dark green and red color scheme, Greenwich stores were redesigned with a contemporary motif using the brighter and more dynamic colors of brilliant green and vivid rose. The new colors and graphics help create a livelier, more inviting ambience in Greenwich stores. In addition to this, the new corporate visual identity graphics exhibit the dynamism of the brand. This new look is also complemented by crunchier and tastier pizza products. With rich loads of toppings on crunchy pizza crust, Greenwich created an ideal balance between the customer’s expectations of product quality and taste and a pleasant dining experience. A whole new look, a whole new Greenwich! This is part of Greenwich’s continuing effort to reach out to pizza lovers all over the Philippines. POWERFUL ADVERTISING Greenwich aggressively harnesses tri-media to communicate all the benefits consumers can enjoy at Greenwich. This is augmented by the use of outdoor advertising materials and merchandising collaterals that help heighten public awareness of Greenwich offerings. All these complete effective campaigns and exciting promotions that inevitably translate to high sales performance. Greenwich focuses its marketing campaign on the yindie groups and the strategy has worked wonders. The term â€Å"yindie† has been around for a while now, although it did not become a buzz word like â€Å"yuppie. †It is defined in dictionaries as an informal term referring to a person who combines a lucrative career with non-mainstream tastes. From a pizza chain that was ranked five years ago somewhere in the bottom of the industry ladder with other small pizza stores, Greenwich has become the No. 1 pizza chain in the country, accounting for at least 60 percent of the P5-billion market. â€Å"Our market share is now bigger than those of the other two major pizza chains in the country, combined,† says Luis U. Velasco III, marketing director of Fresh N’ Famous Foods Inc. , maker of Greenwich pizza and a member-company of the Jollibee Foods group. Velascosaysthecampaignfocusingonthebarkadasstartedwhen,after conducting research five years ago, the company realized it was nowhere to be found in the pizza industry’s list of major players. It was lumped with the rest of small players, which were hardly making a dent in the pizza market. â€Å"We decided that we want our brand to be stronger in the minds of our consumers. We took a closer look at our products, identified our strongest offering, which is pizza, and studied its characteristics. We then looked for the type of market that we wanted to talk to,† Velasco recounts. â€Å"Pizza is a fun product, adventurous considering the many kinds of toppings one can put on it, less formal as you eat it with your bare hands whether sitting or standing and it is a type of food that people enjoy eating when shared,† he says. Given the characteristics of its main product offering, it was decided that Greenwich pizza and the yindies were a perfect match. Just like Greenwich pizza, the yindie market is casual, more adventurous, hip and fun, and interactive and inclusive. As Greenwich turned its focus on this segment of the market, the company decided to level up and redefine itself from being a fast-food to a fast-casual chain of restaurants. â€Å"Our roots are fast food and we are not abandoning it, we are only upgrading the customers’ experience in our restaurants,† Velasco says. To transform into a fast-casual restaurant, Greenwich did a makeover of all of its outlets, improved on its pizzas in terms of quality and the varieties of its offering, made its pastas (especially the lasagna) at par with the offerings of even some fine-dining restaurants in the metropolis, introduced other fun food like chicken wings, offered full meals and even breakfast meals in some outlets. â€Å"We upgraded our looks and our service to customers. Our offerings now are not the usual fast-food type of products anymore,† Velasco says. We have been known as the affordable pizza option, that is fine and we are keeping that. But we also want to be known for good taste, quality service and a part of the barkada. †